Procurement Of Foods In Mississippi Delta Schools

Procurement of Foods in Mississippi Delta Schools

In Mississippi, the state with the nation’s lowest median household income, more than one third of children are overweight or obese (State Obesity Data, 2020). Agriculture is the number one industry in Mississippi, employing approximately 17.4% of the state’s workforce on nearly 35,000 farms (Mississippi Agriculture Snapshot, 2020). Hence, using traditional agricultural strengths of Mississippi may offer a unique approach to addressing childhood obesity in this state. In particular, enhancing Farm to School (F2S) efforts, particularly related to local food procurement, may prove especially effective as such initiatives can strengthen the local food system and ultimately increase consumption of local foods (Bobronnikov et al., 2021).

Revised standards put in place for school meal programs increased the amounts of fruits and vegetables served, emphasized whole grain-rich foods, required that only lower-fat and nonfat milk be offered, limited calories, reduced saturated fat and sodium, and required that each student’s lunch include a fruit or vegetable (Child Nutrition Programs, 2018). School districts can facilitate meeting these new standards as local foods available via F2S span the plate including fresh fruits and vegetables, grains, legumes, dairy, and animal protein. The incorporation of fruits and vegetables is particularly important because Mississippi children consume less than one serving of fruits and vegetables daily (“State Obesity Data,” 2020), well below the recommended 2-5 daily servings which puts Mississippi children at increased risk for nutrient deficiency.

A recent literature review published by USDA (Bobronnikov et al., 2021) indicated that nationwide, some of the biggest barriers to F2S are procurement, which includes finding food, knowing what food to request and in what quantity, mismatched agricultural calendars with academic availability, and funding. Despite the known benefits of F2S enhancing local economies, supporting job growth, and promoting fruit and vegetable intake in school children, the perception of the barriers remains greater than the noted benefits. Hence, the objective of the present study was to determine school food procurement amounts (weight and cost) in two Mississippi school districts to illustrate the potential economic and agricultural impacts of purchasing local.

Methods

Design and Sample

The study was designed to collect descriptive data on food procurement from two school districts located in the rural Mississippi Delta. Schools were similar in size with three schools in each district and between 600-785 students. The majority of students in both districts identified as Black (90% and 99%) and participated in free or reduced lunch (73% and 100%). School food service administrators from the two school districts, one of which participated in the USDA Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program (FFVP), were contacted by study investigators and agreed to provide procurement records for research purposes. Procurement documents were sent via email to study investigators and included all records for prime, milk, bread, and vegetable vendors. Data collection covered two academic years, 2018-2019 and 2019-2020. The Institutional Review Board of Delta State University approved and classified the study as exempt.

 Data Analysis

Procurement records, provided in portable document format (pdf), were converted to Excel spreadsheets for coding and analysis. Research staff members coded and classified foods into eight categories – fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, dairy, added sugars, fats, and miscellaneous. The fruits category included fresh, frozen, dried, and sauced (e.g., apple) fruits, and fruit juices and slushies. The vegetables category included fresh, frozen, dried (e.g., kidney beans), pickled, and sauced (e.g., tomato) vegetables, and vegetable juices. The grains category included items made from corn, oat, rice, and wheat. The protein category included beef, chicken, eggs, fish, nuts, pork, seafood, and turkey. The dairy category included cheese, ice cream, milk (wet and dry), pudding, sour cream, and yogurt. The added sugars category included sugar and syrup. The fats category included margarine, oil, and whipped topping. The miscellaneous category included baking items (e.g., corn starch), coffee, condiments, flavoring (e.g., spices), gelatin, gravy, salt, tea, vinegar, and water. Mixed items were classified according to their main ingredient (e.g., breakfast burritos were classified as pork).

To enable comparisons among the eight food categories, all procurement amounts were converted to weight (in pounds). The majority of item descriptions provided sufficient information to allow for weight calculations (i.e., number of items, size of individual item, and unit). For those items with insufficient descriptions, missing information was obtained from corresponding food manufacturer websites. For liquid foods (e.g., milk, juice), conversion rates were based on values obtained from two websites (www.calculateme.com; www.aqua-calc.com). For whole fruits and vegetables, average weights were obtained from two websites (www.aqua-calc.com; https://weightofstuff/average-weight-of-all-fruits-and-vegetables).

Statistical analyses were performed using SAS® software, version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Summary statistics (food group amounts and percentages) for separate school districts (FFVP and non-FFVP) and the two academic years (2018-2019 and 2019-2020) were computed for descriptive purposes. We did not conduct inferential testing on differences between the two school districts or between academic years because of small sample size (n=2).

Results and Discussion

Results from FFVP Participating District

Procurement total and percentage amounts for the FFVP school district are presented in Table 1. In the 2018-2019 academic year, fruits and vegetables each accounted for approximately 9-11% by weight and 10-13% of expenditures. Dairy alone accounted for over 60% by weight and protein and dairy represented over half of expenditures. The fruits category consisted of 18 different items with four items – apples, oranges, mixed fruit, and pears – representing over half by weight and over half of expenditures. The vegetables category consisted of 20 different items with four items – potatoes, tomatoes, greens, and corn – representing over half by weight and over half of expenditures. In the 2019-2020 school year, 16 different fruits were purchased, two less than the 2018-2019 school year, with three items– apples, juice, and oranges – representing over half by weight and over half of expenditures. In the 2019-2020 school year, 19 different vegetables were purchased, one less than the 2018-2019 school year, with three items – potatoes, tomatoes, and legumes – representing over half by weight, while potatoes, tomatoes, and greens represented over half of expenditures. Differences between the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 academic years were small – less than 5% – with some notable exceptions (Figures 1 and 2). In the 2019-2020 academic year, fruit weight and expenditure amounts increased by 11% and 7%, respectively; vegetable amounts increased by less than 3%. Grains weight and expenditures amounts increased by 6% and 7%, respectively, while dairy weight and expenditures decreased by 27% and 15%, respectively. For both academic years combined, 90,501 pounds of fruit and 60,095 pounds of vegetables were purchased.

Results from Non-FFVP Participating District

Procurement percentage amounts for the non-FFVP school district are presented in Table 2. In the 2018-2019 academic year, fruits and vegetables each accounted for approximately 14-17% by weight and 14% of expenditures. Dairy accounted for almost 40% by weight, while grains and protein combined represented approximately half of expenditures. The fruits category consisted of 12 different items, with juice alone accounting for 50% by weight, while apples and juice represented almost half of expenditures. The vegetables category consisted of 18 different items with three items – potatoes, tomatoes, and juice – representing over half by weight and potatoes, tomatoes, and corn representing over half of expenditures. In the 2019-2020 academic year, 12 different fruits were purchased, the same number as the 2018-2019 academic year, with juice alone again accounting for over 50% by weight while apples and juice represented half of the expenditures. The vegetables category consisted of 17 different items, one less than the 2018-2019 school year, with three items combined – potatoes, tomatoes, and juice – representing over half by weight and over half of expenditures. Differences between the 2018-2019 and 2019-2020 academic years were small – less than 5% – with fruit percentages increasing by 2-3% and vegetable percentages decreasing by 3% (Figures 1 and 2). For both academic years combined, 56,177 pounds of fruit and 40,684 pounds of vegetables were purchased.

In this study, the FFVP district purchased more fruits and vegetables than the non-FFVP district. By weight, apples and potatoes were the most purchased fruit and vegetable in the FFVP district, while juices and potatoes were the most purchased fruit and vegetable in the non-FFVP district.’ For all vegetables and most fruits procured during academic years 2018-2020, schools could purchase these locally in Mississippi. To gain an understanding of the potential impact of local procurement on schools and the local agricultural economy, we projected local procurement amounts of produce purchased by the school districts, as well as foods commonly grown in the area. To feed 500 school children at least one locally procured fruit or vegetable each week (given 1 cup serving sizes and 40 weeks), a producer could count on a school district purchasing 20,000 pounds of greens, 6,000 pounds of sweet potatoes, 3,125 pounds of watermelon, and 1,000 pounds of blueberries during an academic year. However, issues such as seasonality, volume, profitability, and processing need to be considered for schools to purchase produce from local farmers. Engagement of school administrators with local producers is necessary for bringing about mutually beneficial effects on school nutrition programs and local agricultural economies.

Table 1. Mississippi Delta FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts
	Academic Year 2018-2019				Academic Year 2019-2020
	Weight (pounds)		Expenditures ($)		Weight (pounds)		Expenditures ($)
Food Group	Amount	% of Total	Amount	% of Total	Amount	% of Total	Amount	% of Total
Fruits	38344	10.7	34734	12.6	52157	21.7	42724	19.6
Vegetables	32066	8.9	28263	10.3	28029	11.6	26065	12.0
Grains	32698	9.1	51113	18.5	35641	14.8	55812	25.6
Protein	26151	7.3	61991	22.5	17319	7.2	40811	18.7
Dairy	225246	62.8	94464	34.3	86550	36.0	41779	19.2
Added Sugars	1805	0.5	1272	0.5	2397	1.0	3704	1.7
Fats	1171	0.3	869	0.3	917	0.4	1289	0.6
Miscellaneous	1355	0.4	2884	1.0	17587	7.3	5834	2.7
Total	358837		275590		240596		218017
Fruits	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Apples	10047	26.2	8496	24.5	11799	22.6	8117	19.0
Bananas	4200	11.0	2063	5.9	6840	13.1	3360	7.9
Cantaloupe	284	0.7	170	0.5	446	0.9	250	0.6
Cherriesa	—	—	—	—	26	0.0	50	0.1
Cranberries	195	0.5	197	0.6	39	0.1	39	0.1
Grapes	1227	3.2	1780	5.1	2034	3.9	2477	5.8
Juice	280	0.7	232	0.7	11557	22.2	5995	14.0
Kiwis	207	0.5	486	1.4	439	0.8	1034	2.4
Lemonsb	11	0.0	21	0.1	—	—	—	—
Melons	32	0.1	23	0.1	192	0.4	98	0.2
Mixed fruit	4836	12.6	4006	11.5	3354	6.4	3171	7.4
Oranges	5867	15.3	4694	13.5	8459	16.2	9296	21.8
Peaches	2184	5.7	1854	5.3	2301	4.4	1953	4.6
Pears	4739	12.4	3937	11.3	2131	4.1	1749	4.1
Pineapple	2223	5.8	1291	3.7	1014	1.9	800	1.9
Plumsb	837	2.2	2886	8.3	—	—	—	—
Raisins	107	0.3	292	0.8	88	0.2	217	0.5
Strawberries	990	2.6	2282	6.6	1439	2.8	4119	9.6
Watermelonb	80	0.2	26	0.1	—	—	—	—
Total	38344		34734		52157		42724
Table 1. Mississippi Delta FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts
Vegetables	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Beansa	—	—	—	—	60	0.2	55	0.2
Broccoli	717	2.2	673	2.4	1050	3.7	785	3.0
Cabbage	75	0.2	79	0.3	560	2.0	295	1.1
Carrots	954	3.0	824	2.9	586	2.1	491	1.9
Cauliflowerb	24	0.1	92	0.3	—	—	—	—
Celeryb	55	0.2	95	0.3	—	—	—	—
Corn	3717	11.6	3574	12.6	1220	4.4	1368	5.2
Cucumbers	597	1.9	423	1.5	653	2.3	478	1.8
Green beans	2028	6.3	1134	4.0	1482	5.3	906	3.5
Green peas	1287	4.0	921	3.3	1482	5.3	1095	4.2
Greens	3813	11.9	4059	14.4	3388	12.1	3993	15.3
Jalapeno peppers	77	0.2	167	0.6	38	0.1	83	0.3
Juicea	—	—	—	—	121	0.4	87	0.3
Legumes	3366	10.5	1970	7.0	3663	13.1	2110	8.1
Mixed vegetables	1566	4.9	1245	4.4	808	2.9	1779	6.8
Onions	708	2.2	625	2.2	384	1.4	343	1.3
Peppers	615	1.9	707	2.5	444	1.6	525	2.0
Potatoes	6583	20.5	5826	20.6	6253	22.3	5600	21.5
Radishesb	1	0.0	2	0.0	—	—	—	—
Squash	180	0.6	179	0.6	80	0.3	80	0.3
Sweet potatoes	1770	5.5	2500	8.8	312	1.1	393	1.5
Tomatoes	3934	12.3	3168	11.2	5446	19.4	5596	21.5
Total	32066		28263		28029		26065
Grains	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Corn	3507	10.7	11002	21.5	3281	9.2	8682	15.6
Oat	618	1.9	763	1.5	456	1.3	618	1.1
Rice	628	1.9	895	1.8	720	2.0	992	1.8
Wheat	27944	85.5	38453	75.2	31184	87.5	45519	81.6
Total	32698		51113		35641		55812
Protein	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Beef	4274	16.3	10888	17.6	2482	14.3	6257	15.3
Chicken	9338	35.7	22221	35.8	5096	29.4	12229	30.0
Table 1. Mississippi Delta FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts
Eggs	1543	5.9	2474	4.0	894	5.2	1409	3.5
Fish	342	1.3	728	1.2	467	2.7	1461	3.6
Nutsa	—	—	—	—	30	0.2	42	0.1
Pork	10315	39.4	25025	40.4	8127	46.9	18830	46.1
Turkey	340	1.3	655	1.1	224	1.3	584	1.4
Total	26151		61991		17319		40811
Dairy	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Buttermilk	98	0.0	31	0.0	17	0.0	6	0.0
Cheese	1723	0.8	3642	3.9	1506	1.7	3385	8.1
Ice creamb	594	0.3	941	1.0	—	—	—	—
Milk	221709	98.4	88313	93.5	82432	95.2	35474	84.9
Milk dry	50	0.0	171	0.2	25	0.0	92	0.2
Sour cream	650	0.3	761	0.8	160	0.2	215	0.5
Yogurt	423	0.2	606	0.6	2411	2.8	2608	6.2
Total	225246		94464		86550		41779
Added sugars	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Sugar	1584	87.8	1067	83.9	1134	47.3	789	21.3
Syrup	221	12.2	205	16.1	1263	52.7	2915	78.7
Total	1805		1272		2397		3704
Fats	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Margarine	960	82.0	693	79.7	643	70.2	525	40.7
Oil	175	14.9	95	10.9	261	28.5	737	57.2
Whipped topping	36	3.1	81	9.4	12	1.3	28	2.1
Total	1171		869		917		1289
Miscellaneous	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group	Amount	% of Group
Baking	48	3.5	38	1.3	243	1.4	210	3.6
Condimenta	—	—	—	—	13127	74.6	2602	44.6
Flavoring	466	34.4	2039	70.7	699	4.0	1949	33.4
Gelatin	243	17.9	310	10.7	189	1.1	252	4.3
Gravy	72	5.3	149	5.2	36	0.2	74	1.3
Salt	493	36.4	341	11.8	349	2.0	250	4.3
Teaa	—	—	—	—	24	0.1	73	1.2
Table 1. Mississippi Delta FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts
Vinegar	33	2.5	8	0.3	67	0.4	17	0.3
Watera	—	—	—	—	2854	16.2	407	7.0
Total	1355		2884		17587		5834
a Not purchased in 2018-2019.
b Not purchased in 2019-2020.
Table 2. Mississippi Delta Non-FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts   Academic Year 2018-2019 Academic Year 2019-2020 Weight (pounds) Expenditures ($) Weight (pounds) Expenditures ($) Food Group Amount % of Total Amount % of Total Amount % of Total Amount % of Total Fruits 27236 16.5 20079 14.1 28941 19.4 22128 16.4 Vegetables 23769 14.4 19717 13.8 16915 11.3 14501 10.7 Grains 21184 12.8 34348 24.1 19910 13.4 34673 25.7 Protein 15171 9.2 35694 25.0 13183 8.8 32250 23.9 Dairy 65043 39.4 25905 18.1 55558 37.3 25850 19.1 Added Sugars 1333 0.8 2158 1.5 777 0.5 1337 1.0 Fats 894 0.5 1103 0.8 683 0.5 1086 0.8 Miscellaneous 10598 6.4 3736 2.6 13140 8.8 3343 2.5 Total 165228 142740 149108 135168 Fruits Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Apples 4194 15.4 4341 21.6 2942 10.2 2570 11.6 Bananas 880 3.2 432 2.2 1240 4.3 609 2.8 Cranberriesa 39 0.1 39 0.2 — — — — Grapes 75 0.3 126 0.6 629 2.2 739 3.3 Juice 13608 50.0 5206 25.9 15869 54.8 8480 38.3 Kiwisb — — — — 65 0.2 152 0.7 Mixed fruit 1365 5.0 1133 5.6 1755 6.1 1516 6.9 Oranges 791 2.9 542 2.7 1782 6.2 1941 8.8 Peaches 1755 6.4 1489 7.4 1014 3.5 861 3.9 Pears 2428 8.9 2223 11.1 1545 5.3 1444 6.5 Pineapple 897 3.3 578 2.9 1209 4.2 954 4.3 Raisins 811 3.0 2456 12.2 685 2.4 2088 9.4 Strawberries 394 1.4 1513 7.5 208 0.7 774 3.5 Total 27236 20079 28941 22128         Table 2. Mississippi Delta Non-FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts   Vegetables Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Broccoli 339 1.4 325 1.6 267 1.6 242 1.7 Cabbage 50 0.2 53 0.3 130 0.8 109 0.8 Carrots 843 3.5 814 4.1 639 3.8 732 5.1 Corn 2380 10.0 2113 10.7 838 5.0 897 6.2 Cucumbers 318 1.3 244 1.2 236 1.4 168 1.2 Green beans 1716 7.2 1078 5.5 741 4.4 453 3.1 Green peas 897 3.8 672 3.4 390 2.3 288 2.0 Greens 855 3.6 944 4.8 583 3.4 794 5.5 Jalapeno peppersa 38 0.2 83 0.4 — — — — Juice 3077 12.9 2053 10.4 2077 12.3 1446 10.0 Legumes 1639 6.9 1046 5.3 1677 9.9 1013 7.0 Mixed vegetables 722 3.0 638 3.2 538 3.2 553 3.8 Onions 257 1.1 231 1.2 166 1.0 162 1.1 Peppers 213 0.9 245 1.2 150 0.9 183 1.3 Potatoes 6267 26.4 5484 27.8 5426 32.1 4644 32.0 Squash 260 1.1 261 1.3 40 0.2 40 0.3 Sweet potatoes 687 2.9 831 4.2 444 2.6 625 4.3 Tomatoes 3210 13.5 2603 13.2 2574 15.2 2151 14.8 Total 23769 19717 16915 14501 Grains Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Corn 1601 7.6 5365 15.6 741 3.7 3133 9.0 Oat 555 2.6 973 2.8 282 1.4 398 1.1 Rice 524 2.5 1204 3.5 712 3.6 1820 5.2 Wheat 18504 87.4 26805 78.0 18175 91.3 29322 84.6 Total 21184 34348 19910 34673 Protein Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Beef 2701 17.8 6936 19.4 1657 12.6 4584 14.2 Chicken 5050 33.3 11106 31.1 4164 31.6 9793 30.4 Eggs 736 4.9 1263 3.5 457 3.5 606 1.9 Fish 680 4.5 1443 4.0 548 4.2 1476 4.6 Pork 5820 38.4 14490 40.6 6141 46.6 15204 47.1 Seafooda 100 0.7 240 0.7 — — — —         Table 2. Mississippi Delta Non-FFVP School District Food Procurement Amounts Turkey 84 0.6 216 0.6 216 1.6 587 1.8 Total 15171 35694 13183 32250 Dairy Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Cheese 1158 1.8 2433 9.4 1260 2.3 3333 12.9 Milk 63070 97.0 22170 85.6 52985 95.4 20456 79.1 Milk dry 25 0.0 82 0.3 25 0.0 92 0.4 Sour cream 74 0.1 95 0.4 118 0.2 182 0.7 Yogurt 717 1.1 1125 4.3 1171 2.1 1786 6.9 Total 65043 25905 55558 25850 Added sugars Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Sugar 589 44.2 441 20.4 296 38.1 226 16.9 Syrup 744 55.8 1717 79.6 481 61.9 1111 83.1 Total 1333 2158 777 1337 Fats Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Margarine 703 78.6 571 51.8 423 61.9 387 35.7 Oil 191 21.4 532 48.2 236 34.5 644 59.3 Whipped toppingb — — — — 24 3.5 55 5.1 Total 894 1103 683 1086 Miscellaneous Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Amount % of Group Baking 114 1.1 112 3.0 12 0.1 17 0.5 Condiments 6467 61.0 1285 34.4 10029 76.3 1548 46.3 Flavoring 213 2.0 938 25.1 74 0.6 377 11.3 Gelatin 336 3.2 488 13.1 510 3.9 770 23.0 Gravy 108 1.0 223 6.0 72 0.5 149 4.5 Salt 324 3.1 260 7.0 207 1.6 159 4.7 Vinegarb — — — — 67 0.5 17 0.5 Water 3036 28.7 429 11.5 2169 16.5 307 9.2 Total 10598   3736   13140   3343   a Not purchased in 2019-2020. b Not purchased in 2018-2019.

Conclusions and Applications

During the 2013-2014 school year, schools nationwide spent nearly $790 million on local foods (About The Farm to School Census, 2019). Data from the Farm to School Census represents only those schools who opted to respond to the survey. Additionally, identifying which foods are local can be difficult if they are procured from broadline distributors or wholesalers and not explicitly labeled or identified as local. Therefore, reported amounts purchased of local items may underrepresent the actual amount schools spend on local foods. During the 2011-2012 school year, schools that reported serving local foods, 53% reported obtaining food directly from farmers and other producers, while 77% reported using a distributor (USDA, 2019). School nutrition professionals may request that local items are marked or identified as such which may in turn be a solution for schools to more frequently identify purchases from broadline distributors and wholesalers.

A recent trend in local food procurement is that larger school districts (enrollment > 5,000 students), urban districts, and districts located in counties with a higher density of farmers’ markets reported being likely to serve local foods daily (Ralston et al., 2017). Small or medium size schools are more likely to purchase foods on a weekly basis (instead of daily), which may affect purchasing decisions (Stokes & Arendt, 2018). Other factors identified that may affect purchasing decisions included storage capacity, delivery availability, and product use (Stokes & Arendt, 2018). Given that more than 50% of school districts across the US are rural and small (Johnson et al., 2014), increased outreach for training and resources related to procurement of local items is needed in these areas. Procurement processes in general can be confusing and viewed as inconsistent and complicated (School Nutrition Association, 2016). Those affiliated with the School Nutrition Association have advocated for years, and particularly in a White Paper published in 2016, for increased attention for training and technical assistance for operators who must interpret and apply quickly changing laws and policies related to procurement.

The Mississippi Department of Education operates the largest school purchasing cooperative in the nation (Mississippi Department of Education, n.d.). Items available to participating districts include produce, milk, ice cream, bread, general foods, and supplies. Through this purchasing cooperative, food prices are more affordable, and procurement is simplified. However, logistical challenges still exist in Mississippi, where procurement of foods for school meals is highly coordinated. In other places where there are disjointed efforts to procure foods, local food may not even be considered as an option.

Finding existing distributors who advertise and offer local foods may be one option to help ease food safety concerns, make products more affordable, and assure quality standards. Food hubs, cooperatives, and buying groups may also be options. Adding local items to menus can also pose challenges to standardized menus and may force changes to traditional offerings. Seasonality must be considered and oftentimes the volume needed for larger schools may not be available from one producer (Bobronnikov et al., 2021). School nutrition professionals may consider providing detailed information about what is currently used and forecasted needs may help producers see the benefits of seeking school purchasing contracts or developing their own cooperatives.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Debra Johnson from Delta Health Alliance for assistance with data cleaning, Clara Adams and Joann Martin for their flexibility and willingness to provide information, Ryan Betz for facilitating communication, and Jordan Simmons for assistance with manuscript preparation.